TLR2 Helps Bacteria Weaken Gums

The bacterium Porphyromonas gingivalis gets most of the blame for periodontal disease, which erodes bone that supports teeth and is the leading cause of tooth loss. P gingivalis adheres to oral surfaces using molecules such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and lipoproteins. These molecules are recognized by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) that are expressed on cells of the immune system: TLR2 binds bacterial lipopeptides and TLR4 binds LPS. Burns and colleagues tested how these TLRs are involved in the host mouse response against P gingivalis. They implanted metal coils subcutaneously and injected bacteria into the lumen, and then sampled the space at later times to monitor the immune response in wild-type (WT), TLR2, and -4 knockout (-/-) mice. They observed differences in the induction of cytokines, most dramatically a reduced accumulation of TNF, interferon-gamma, and interleukin-10 in TLR2-/- mice. Surprisingly, TLR2-/- mice cleared the bacteria from the injection site and blood within a day. In contrast, bacteria remained in the blood of WT and TLR4-/- mice for at least 4 days. Moreover, when mice were orally challenged with P. gingivalis, significant bone loss resulted within 6 weeks in WT but not TLR2-/- mice (Figure). Would blocking TLR2 with lipopeptides in a mouthwash or chewing gum help protect teeth?
J Immunol. 2006 Dec 15;177(12):8296-300. "TLR2 is required for the innate response to Porphyromonas gingivalis: activation leads to bacterial persistence and TLR2 deficiency attenuates induced alveolar bone resorption." Burns E, Bachrach G, Shapira L, Nussbaum G.

Flu Vaccine - wheeze now or sick later?

The prestigious New England Journal of Medicine just published a paper claiming to demonstrate a superiority of attenuated live flu vaccine over the conventional, dead flu vaccine for young children. About half as many kids in the attenuated vaccine group went on to contract flu (figure). USA Today and other publications trumpeted the results with headlines such as "FluMist spray protects kids better than flu shots". They downplayed the concern raised by independent scientists that the live vaccine "comes with a significant risk for medically important wheezing".
This story illustrates some of the problems with reporting such clinical trials. First, it was "sponsored" (paid for) by MedImmune, the producer of the live vaccine. Sponsors have been known to not publish disappointing results, producing a publication bias. Although we can welcome these results, the arrangement raises questions about the "spin". How should parents and pediatricians balance the decrease in disease (from 9% to 4%) with the increase in wheezing (from 3% to 6%)? Second, the description of the trial is misleading. The Methods section begins "children ... were randomly assigned ...to receive either ... live attenuated influenza vaccine ... or inactivated vaccine in a double-blind manner" (emphasis added). This use of the term "double-blind" is nonsensical because random is completely "blind". The wording seems intended to make the reader think the trial was double-blind. Double-blind is the gold standard for trials because it reduces bias by keeping the both the doctor and patient ignorant of which treatment they are assigned. In this trial, however, the treatments could not be "blinded" because one involves a shot and the other involves sniffing the virus, treatments that are clearly distinguishable even by a patient. Finally, journals and journalists like to report positive, exciting news. These results merit a more sober discussion.
N Engl J Med. 2007 Feb 15;356(7):685-96. "Live attenuated versus inactivated influenza vaccine in infants and young children." Belshe RB, Edwards KM, Vesikari T, Black SV, Walker RE, Hultquist M, Kemble G, Connor EM

Tuberculosis Traffic Arrest

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a life-threatening pathogen that persists in infected cells after being phagocytosed (eaten). Phagocytosed matter is usually digested but M. tuberculosis avoids this fate by blocking the acidification of the its compartment. The process can be studied in U937 cells because they behave like macrophages ("big eaters") and grow well in culture. Rab proteins form a large family of Ras-like GTPases that mediate vesicle trafficking, budding, etc. A recent report showed that Rab14 participates in trafficking to the early endosome, a stage just after the phagosome. Kyei and colleagues found that Rab14 associated with phagosomes containing live tuberculosis mycobacteria and investigated whether Rab14 was required for the arrested development of the phagosome. Phagosomes of U937 cells contain live tuberculosis bacilli of the strain H37Rv (green label, left panels). The middle panels show the same cells stained with a dye that detects endosomes that have undergone acidification, a step toward digestion and marker of the early endosome. A "knock-down" of Rab14 with siRNA permits the maturation of the phagosome, as demonstrated by the overlap of the acidified (red), bacillus-containing (green) phagosomes, (yellow color in the lower right panel). These findings suggest that inhibiting Rab14 may permit the infected cell to digest M. tuberculosis, thereby offering a new target for therapeutic intervention and potentially reducing the burden of this disease.
Kyei GB, Vergne I, Chua J, Roberts E, Harris J, Junutula JR, Deretic V. "Rab14 is critical for maintenance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis phagosome maturation arrest". EMBO J. 2006 Nov 15;25(22):5250-9.